Masaccio's works made good use of Brunelleschi's linear perspective system, which was relatively new at the time. As Brunelleschi was an architect, Masaccio successfully demonstrated his discovery for him and may have even collaborated with him. Masaccio also incorporated many techniques in his work that have come to represent strides forward in illusionistic painting.
Through the use of light and shadow, perspective and the arrangement of figures and elements in the piece, Masaccio created scenes that seemed more lifelike, which in turn enhanced the emotional impression made on viewers. He drew inspiration from his contemporaries, and other artists in turn began to use those same elements in their own artwork.
The most obvious way Masaccio creates the illusion of depth in “The Tribute Money” is the use of atmospheric perspective. Elements in the foreground are rendered in sharp detail, including the green mountain directly to the left of the building; but the farther away the mountain range is, the more faded and blurry it becomes. This phenomenon is observable in real life.
The second technique used is linear perspective. The building on the right side of the fresco is rendered in one-point perspective. If the diagonal lines are extended, the vanishing point – their intersecting point – is Christ's head. The far side of the building is visible and assists in deepening the “stage,” and because it is mathematically accurate, the effect is more convincing. This, plus atmospheric perspective affecting the mountains, makes the stage seem infinite.
The third way is the arrangement of the figures themselves. Artwork from the Middle Ages would line up the figures in a row as if their stage was very narrow. Painters eventually placed figures behind one another, but their placement was artificial and still evoked a feeling of flatness. The figures in Masaccio's painting however, especially the central group, are arranged in a circle around Christ. They are not huddled together in neat rows, but seem to have come together spontaneously. Saint Peter is seen kneeling on the far left of the picture, an actual inhabitant of the deep space insinuated by mountains.
The fourth main way is Masaccio's use of light and shadow. Generally, paintings before the Renaissance used light and shadow only to define shapes, such as wrinkles and folds in clothing. It was uniform across an entire piece and illuminated all parts equally. But the light in Masaccio's work comes from a single source. It cannot be seen, but now only parts of the figures are lit, and the rest is in shadow. Additionally, deep shadows have less detail, such as the open doors and windows in the building. Because light only hits certain areas and not all, it creates a sense of dimension that the viewer is already familiar with seeing in real life.
Before the Renaissance, nudity in art was frowned upon because it was considered indecent by religious clergy. Donatello had been studying classical art for some time, and basically revived the concept of the nude sculpture. The character portrayed is David, of the David and Goliath biblical story, which put it within the realm of allowable nudity in art. David's pose is an example of contrapposto, which was also seen in classical statues.
This is not Donatello's first David sculpture; his first one was on display at the Palazzo della Signoria. The Medici knew of this statue, and probably related to David's story, as they had their own share of power struggles and Florence had faced the threat of invasion. This is likely why they commissioned a statute of David.
Donatello reintroduced nudity, relaxed posture and sensuality in Renaissance sculpture. The combination of these elements draws focus to the portrayal of David himself: a boy, not so holy that he cannot be spoiled by earthly concerns (note the helmet touching his thigh). The subtle pride on his face and evoked by the hand on his hip indicates satisfaction for his own good deed. This sense of individuality is prioritized over the religious element.
The facade of the Pazzi Chapel uses simple shapes, squares and circles (circular medallions, and semicircles for the arches) and looks simple and clean overall. Clarity is one of the goals of the Renaissance architectural style. The chapel itself is built on a central plan: there is one main entrance, no naves, and all focus is put on the dome at the center.
Mathematics had spiritual properties in this era. The perfect circle represents God and heaven, and the square represents Earth and its imperfections. By placing the circle at the center of this chapel, it implies that God and heaven are very close – within reach, even – to the visitor as soon as they walk inside.
The relocation of [the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in Lateran Palace] to the Capitoline Hill established it as a symbol of Rome. This move was part of a scheme to revive the grandeur of Rome by creating a public square in what was historically a center of Roman civic government, and remodel the palaces surrounding it. Michelangelo was given this impressive task.
The equestrian statue was erected in the 170s CE. By the time the 16th century rolled around, it was highly regarded as a symbol of virtue and strength, and was the inspiration for Donatello's “Gattamelata” and Verrocchio's “Bartolommeo Colleoni.” Moving it to the Piazza del Campidoglio cemented its status as a symbol of Rome and its civic pride, and created a link between the papacy and the classical era.
The old St. Peter's was regarded as a site of great historical significance by the Catholic church. It was about 1,200 years old and in danger of collapse when Pope Julius II proposed tearing it down and building a new one.
The architect Bramante began work on the new St. Peter's in 1505. He died in 1514. The work was passed between various architects (who either kept dying or were interrupted by politics) until it eventually reached Michelangelo in 1546, more than 30 years later. Pope John Paul III was anxious to get this project moving; he needed to restore the credibility of the Church following a string of reputation-damaging events (including the sack of Rome and the Reformation). He wanted to quash the corruption and abuse within the Church as well as reestablish and reaffirm its role in religion. This became the basis of the movement known as the Counter-Reformation. Finishing the construction of this holy building was critical to the Church accomplishing its goal.
Bramante started with a design composed of many interlocking crosses; the arms of the large Greek cross were intersected with smaller crosses. At the center is a large dome, with four more domes surrounding it. The corner chapels also had their own domes. This would be a complex construction job.
Architects took a shot at a redesign, including Raphael. Raphael's attempted was similar to Bramante's design, but he extended the one side of it to incorporate a nave, thus eliminating a couple of the smaller crosses.
Michelangelo stepped in, took Bramante's original central plan and reduced the number of shapes in it, simplifying it so that it incorporated a square while keeping the Greek cross. This design has a much greater sense of unity, and I imagine it was less expensive to build as well.
As for the dome, Michelangelo planned for it to be round, like the Pantheon. He died before they began construction on the dome. The next architect in line, Giacomo della Porta, changed the design from round to octagonal so that it resembled the dome of the Florence Cathedral. This design was more stable and easier to build.
Michelangelo's design for the Palazzo Farnese is the culmination of many ideas that emerged or were revived earlier in the Renaissance.
These include (but are not limited to) the rough-cut stone elements that anchor the building to the ground, like the Palazzo Medici; the different-colored stone used for each story, with the darkest on the bottom and the lightest on top, like the textures also used in the Medici palace; and the different pediments above each window on the facade that create the illusion that each floor is lighter than the one below it, much like the Palazzo Rucellai's design with different capitals on its pilasters at each level.
The design is simple and incorporates proportionate measurements. The Palazzo Farnese set the bar for High Renaissance buildings that were designed after it.
Jan Vermeer specialized in painting interior scenes. Indeed, most of his pieces are set in the same one or two rooms, with light almost always streaming in from a window on the left; the only differences are the positions of the furniture, props, draperies and human subjects.
With such domestic settings and content, it's easy to say there's not much that Vermeer and other Baroque masters (e.g. Peter Paul Rubens) have in common. After all, his contemporaries are producing works inspired by Italian painters, full of twisting human forms and dramatic lighting.
But it is Vermeer's use of that single source of light and the arrangement of furniture that is precisely the reason why his work is considered Baroque. With additions in the foreground like a doorway (The Letter) or a curtain and chair (Allegory of the Art of Painting), he creates two spaces: one that contains the subjects of his painting, and one which the viewer inhabits. The stage is lit by a strong source of light. It's just like the work produced in Italy at the beginning of the century, in which some churches became theaters of sorts as visitors would “witness” impressive narrative scenes on the walls and ceilings. Bernini in particular created “stages” in his architectural/sculptural works and manipulated light and shadow to heighten the drama – which is what Vermeer has done here.
The Baroque period also marks a shift from highly idealized, fantastic painted scenes to something more relatable to the middle and lower classes (though the former was certainly still being produced). The idea was to render scenes in a more naturalistic manner. In addition to painting realistic, down-to-earth human subjects like Caravaggio and others, Vermeer also set out to render light as realistically as possible. Colored objects reflect light upon each other, such as the woman's yellow dress casting a colored glow onto her lute in “The Letter.” Vermeer sought this effect through the pigments he used, showing that the materials used really do make a difference.